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12-04
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There is no questionthat science-fiction writers have become more ambitious, stylistically andthematically, in recent years. (46) But this may have less to do withthe luring call of academic surroundings than with changing market conditions—a factorthat academic critics rarely take into account. Robert Silverberg, a former president of The Science Fiction Writersof America, is one of the most prolific professionals in a field dominated bypeople who actually write for a living. (Unlike mystery or Western writers,most science-fiction writers cannot expect to cash in on fat movie sales or TV tie-ins.) (47)Still in his late thirties, Silverberg has published more than a hundred books,and he is disarmingly frank about the relationship between the quality ofgenuine prose and the quality of available outlet. By his own account,he was “an annoyingly verbal young man” from Brooklyn whopicked up his first science-fiction book at the age of ten, started writingseriously at the age of thirteen, and at seventeen nearly gave up in despairover his inability to break into the pulp magazines. (48) At hisparents’ urging, he enrolled in Columbia University, so that, if worst cameto worst, he could always go to the School of Journalism and “get a nicesteady job somewhere”. During his sophomore year, hesold his first science-fiction story to a Scottish magazine named Nebula. Bythe end of his junior year, he had sold a novel and twenty more stories. (49)By th...
12-04
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Gandhi’s pacifismcan be separated to some extent from his other teachings.(46)Its motive wasreligious, but he claimed also for it that it was a definite technique, amethod, capable of producing desired political results. Gandhi’s attitudewas not that of most Western pacifists. Satyagraha, (47)the methodGandhi proposed and practiced, first evolved in South Africa, was a sort ofnonviolent warfare, a way of defeating the enemy without hurting him andwithout feeling or arousing hatred. It entailed such things as civildisobedience, strikes, lying down in front of railway trains, enduring policecharges without running away and without hitting back, and the like. Gandhiobjected to “passive resistance” as a translation of Satyagraha: in Gujuruti, it seems the wordmeans “firmness in the truth.” (48)In his early days Gandhi served as a stretcher-beareron the British side in the Boer War, and he was prepared to do the same againin the war of 1914-1918. Even after he had completely renouncedviolence he was honest enough to see that in war it is usually necessary totake sides. Since his whole political life centred round a struggle fornational independence, he could not and, (49)indeed, he did not takethe fruitless and dishonest line of pretending that in every war both sides areexactly the same and it makes no difference who wins. Nor did he, likemost Western pacifists, specialize in avoiding awkward questions. In relationto the war, one question th...
12-04
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Wisdom born ofexperience should tell us that war is obsolete.(46)There mayhave been a time when war served as a negative good by preventing the spreadand growth of an evil force, but the destructive power of modern weaponseliminates even the possibility that war may serve any good at all. In a day when vehicles hurtle through outer space and guidedballistic missiles carve highways of death through the stratosphere, no nationcan claim victory in war. A so-called limited war will leave little more than acalamitous legacy of human suffering, political and spiritual disillusionment.A world war will leave only smoldering ashes as mute testimony of a human racewhose folly led inexorably to ultimate death. (47)If modernman continues to toy unhesitatingly with war, he will transform his earthlyhabitat into a hell such as even the mind of Dante (但丁) could notimagine.
(48)Therefore I suggest that the philosophy and strategy of nonviolencebecomes immediately a subject for study and for serious experimentation inevery field of human conflict, by no means excluding the relations betweennations. It is, after all, nation states,which make war, which have produced the weapons that threaten the survival ofmankind and which are both genocidal and suicidal in character.
We have ancient habits to deal with, vast structures of power,indescribably complicated problems to solve.(49)But unlesswe resign our humanity altogether and yield to fear...
12-04
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Relativity theoryhas had a profound influence on our picture of matter by forcing us to modifyour concept of a particle in an essential way. (47)In classicalphysics, the mass of an object had always been associated with anindestructible material substance, with some “stuff” of whichall things were thought to be made. Relativitytheory showed that mass has nothing to do with any substance, but is a formenergy. Energy, however, is a dynamic quantity associated with activity, orwith processes.(48)The fact that the mass of a particle is equivalent to a certain ofenergy means that the particle can no longer be seen as a static object, buthas to be conceived as a dynamic pattern, a process involving the energy whichmanifest itself as the particle’s mass.
(49)This new view of particles was initiated by Dirac when he formulateda relativistic equation describing the behavior of electrons. Dirac’s theory was not only extremely successful in accounting for thefine details of atomic structure, but also revealed a fundamental symmetrybetween matter and anti-matter. It predicted the existence of an anti-matterwith the same mass as the electron but with an opposite charge. This positivelycharged particle, now called the positron, was indeed discovered two yearsafter Dirac had predicted it. The symmetry between matter and anti-matterimplies that for every particle there exists an antiparticles with equal massand opposite charge. Pairs of particl...
12-04
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The value whichsociety places on work has traditionally been closely associated with the valueof individualism and as a result it has had negative effects on the developmentof social security. (46) It has meant thatin the first place the amount of benefits must be small lest people’swillingness to work and support themselves suffers. Eventoday with flat rate and earnings-related benefits, the total amount of thebenefit must always be smaller than the person’s wages for fear ofmalingering. “The purpose of social security,” said Huntfordreferring to Sweden’s comparatively generous benefits, “is to dispel needwithout crossing the threshold of prosperity.” Second, socialsecurity benefits are granted under conditions designed to reduce thelikelihood of even the boldest of spirits attempting to live on the Staterather than work. Many of the rules surrounding the payment of unemployment orsupplementary benefit are for this purpose. Third, the value placed on work ismanifested in a more positive way as in the case of disability. (47) Peoplesuffering from accidents incurred at work or from occupational diseases receivepreferential treatment by the social security service compared with thosesuffering from civil accidents and ordinary illnesses.
Yet, the stranglehold which work has had on the social securityservice has been increasingly loosened over the years. The provision of familyallowances, family income supplement...
12-04
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Theories of thevalue of art are of two kinds, which we may call extrinsic and intrinsic. Thefirst regards art and the appreciation of art as means to some recognized moralgood, while the second regards them as valuable not instrumentally but asobjects unto themselves. It is characteristic of extrinsic theories to locatethe value of art in its effects on the person who appreciates it. Art is heldto be a form of education, perhaps an education of the emotions. In this case,it becomes an open question whether there might not be some more effectivemeans to the same result. (46) Alternatively, one may attribute anegative value to art, as Plato did in his Republic, arguing that art has acorrupting or diseducative effect on those exposed to it.
The extrinsic approach, adopted in modern times by Leo Tolstoy in What Is Artin 1896, has seldom seemed wholly satisfactory. (47)Philosophers haveconstantly sought for a value in aesthetic experience that is unique to it andthat, therefore, could not be obtained from any other source. Theextreme version of this intrinsic approach is that associated with WalterPater, Oscar Wilde, and the French Symbolists, and summarized in the slogan “art for art’s sake”. Suchthinkers and writers believe that art is not only an end in itself but also asufficient justification of itself. (48)They also hold that in order tounderstand art as it should be understood, it is necessary to put aside allinterests...
12-04
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(46)Anydiscussion of the American educational system would be less than complete if itdid not mention the emphasis that many colleges and universities place upon thenonacademic, social,“extracurricular”aspect of education, often defined as personal growth. Perhaps a useful way of viewing the notion of personal growth wouldbe to picture the very large and general term“education” as beingall-embracing, including as subsets within it academic and nonacademiccomponents.
This may be one of the most difficult concepts to convey to someonewho is not intimately familiar with American higher education. Few educationalsystems in other countries place the same emphasis on this blend of academicand personal education. The majority of colleges and universities in the UnitedStates make some attempt to integrate personal and intellectual growth in theundergraduate years. (47) If the ultimate goal of undergraduateeducation in America were simply to convey a set body of knowledge, the term ofstudies could undoubtedly be reduced. Yet the terms of studies areextended in order to give students a chance to grow and develop in other ways.
Numerous opportunities are made available to students to becomeinvolved in sports, student government, musical and dramatic organizations, andcountless other organized and individual activities designed to enhance one’s personalgrowth and provide some recreation and enjoyment outside of the classro...
12-04
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The meanings of “science”and“technology”have changedsignificantly from one generation to another. More similarities thandifferences, however, can be found between the terms, (46)Both scienceand technology imply a thinking process, both are concerned with causalrelationships in the material world, and both employ an experimentalmethodology that results in empirical demonstrations that can be verified byrepetition. (47)Science, at least in theory, is less concerned withthe practicality of its results and more concerned with the development ofgeneral laws, but in practice science and technology are inextricably involvedwith each other. The varying interplay of the two can be observed inthe historical development of such practitioners as chemists, engineers,physicists, astronomers, carpenters, potters, and many other specialists.Differing educational requirements, social status, vocabulary, methodology, andtypes of rewards, as well as institutional objectives and professional goals,contribute to such distinctions as can be made between the activities ofscientists and technologists; but throughout history the practitioners of “pure”science havemade many practical as well as theoretical contributions.
(48) Indeed, the concept that science provides the ideas fortechnological innovations and that pure research is therefore essential for anysignificant advancement in industrial civilization is essentially a myth. Mostof the greatest ch...
12-04
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Part C
Directions:
Read the following passage carefully and then translate theunderlined segments into Chinese. Your translation must be written clearly onANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)
一、经济学史
Economics, as we know it, is the social science concerned with theproduction, distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods and services.Economists focus on the way in which individuals, groups, business enterprises,and governments seek to achieve efficiently any economic objective they select. (46)Other fields of study also contribute to this knowledge: Psychology and ethicstry to explain how objectives are formed, history records changes in humanobjectives, and sociology interprets human behavior in social contexts.
Standard economics can be divided into two major fields. (47)The first, price theory or microeconomics, explains how the interplay of supplyand demand in competitive markets creates a multitude of individual prices,wage rates, profit margins, and rental changes. Microeconomics assumesthat people behave rationally. Consumers try to spend their income in ways thatgive them as much pleasure as possible. As economists say, they maximizeutility. For their part, entrepreneurs seek as much profit as they can extractfrom their operations.
The second field, macroeconomics, deals with modern explanations of nationalincome and employment. Macroeconomics dates from the book, ...
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